Understanding Water Quality Issues with Roadside Springs

What is a Spring?

Springs occur where groundwater flows to the surface, typically on hillsides, low areas, or slopes. They form when the water table meets the surface, often due to land features or geological changes. Spring water is closer to the surface, making it more vulnerable to runoff and surface water contamination than deeper well water.

Household springs are used by up to 21% of residents in some counties and are most commonly used in rural homes in northcentral Pennsylvania (Potter, Forest, and Clarion Counties). Household springs must be developed, maintained, and appropriately treated for drinking water use.

Roadside springs are located along the state or local roadways. These springs are typically exposed when road construction activities cut through the earth, revealing shallow groundwater. Many roadside springs across Pennsylvania have old stone or concrete wall reservoirs and metal or PVC piping. These springs may be on public or private land, but most are not regularly tested or treated. Therefore, a few municipalities have posted warning signs about the lack of testing and the risks of drinking roadside spring water.

Knowing where a roadside spring gets its water is crucial. One spring we studied seemed like a roadside spring at the water collection point, but when we traced the pipe uphill, we discovered it was pulling water from a nearby stream and not groundwater!

Use of Roadside Springs

Many people fill jugs with water from roadside springs across Pennsylvania, but how often they do it was unclear until a 2014-2015 statewide survey. At 55 Penn State Extension workshops, 1,035 participants were asked about their roadside spring water use. About 30% (311 people) had collected water from a roadside spring, while 69% (714 people) had never done so. Of those who collected water, 18% did so occasionally, while 12% collected water from roadside springs regularly.

As shown in Figure 1 below, respondents turn to roadside springs for many reasons, often thinking the water is pure, natural, and tastes better. But the real question is: Is untreated water from a roadside spring actually safe to drink? Here is what we found:

2013 Monitoring of Roadside Springs

From April to August 2013, Penn State Extension conducted a pilot study of 35 roadside springs (Figure 2).

One-time grab samples collected from each spring found that 97% (34) failed at least one drinking water standard (Figure 3). Coliform bacteria was present in 91% of the springs, and 34% were contaminated with E. coli. E. coli in roadside springs means the water is contaminated with human or animal feces. This is worrying because some types of E. coli can make you sick, and it also suggests the water could have other harmful germs like viruses or parasites. Some springs also had lead levels higher than the safe drinking water standard. Any amount of lead in drinking water can pose serious health risks to children and adults. Other harmful substances that can affect human health, such as arsenic, barium, copper, and nitrate, were also detected in roadside springs. Although these substances were not found in any springs above drinking water standards during this monitoring, they can still be present in springs at dangerous levels at other times of the year. Roadside spring water can look crystal clear and taste good but still contain these and many more harmful substances.

2014 Monitoring of Roadside Springs

In 2014, ten roadside springs were chosen for repeated testing (Figure 2) in June 2014, September 2014, December 2014, and March 2015 to determine

1. whether water quality changed significantly throughout the year and
2. if Giardia and Cryptosporidium, protozoan parasites that cause gastrointestinal illnesses, were present in the springs.

The springs were selected because they previously contained E. coli bacteria, which might vary seasonally or be associated with contamination by protozoans.

The water quality from roadside springs changed very little throughout the year. All springs had total coliform bacteria in all seasons, from 11 colonies per 100mL to too numerous to count. 80% of the springs tested positive for E. coli at least once during the seasonal testing in Phase 2. E. coli bacteria counts were as high as 165 colonies per 100mL during the Phase 2 testing. Similar to the 2013 Phase 1 testing, some roadside springs failed aesthetic drinking water quality, including acidic pH, corrosive water, total dissolved solids, sulfate, and iron.

Eight roadside springs were tested for Giardia and Cryptosporidium parasitic oocysts in October 2014 and March 2015. Sampling and testing for these protozoans in water is expensive and requires special equipment and the collection of large volumes of water, preventing broader testing of more springs.

Seven (88%) of the eight springs tested positive for Giardia and Cryptosporidium at least once. Five of the springs tested positive for both parasites in one season and negative in the other season. The concentrations of oocysts were generally low (below 10 oocysts per liter) but still represented a significant health risk to anyone consuming the water. These invisible parasites can make you very sick causing symptoms such as diarrhea, cramps, and nausea. For example, 36 people (children and adults) in New York and Massachusetts got sick with Giardia, and the outbreak was traced back to a contaminated roadside spring in New York (Bedard et al., 2016).

Interestingly, the presence of E.coli bacteria was a poor indicator of the presence or absence of protozoan parasites. Both springs that had protozoans during both sample periods did not have E. coli bacteria, yet the one spring that did not have protozoans during either sample period tested positive for E. coli.

Conversely, all roadside springs that tested positive for protozoans contained high coliform bacteria counts (above 50 colonies per 100 mL). These results suggest that coliform bacteria rather than E. coli bacteria may be a better indicator of the overall safety of drinking water from roadside springs. However, these deadly parasites can still be in roadside spring water even when tests for E.coli and coliform bacteria are negative

2024 Monitoring of Roadside Springs

In 2024, 70 roadside springs (Figure 4) were monitored in the spring and summer seasons, including 29 roadside springs that were monitored in 2013-2014. The goal of this monitoring was to (1) evaluate current water quality conditions, (2) compare how contaminant concentrations have changed since the last monitoring about 10 years ago, and (3) determine if contaminants of emerging concern are present in roadside springs.

Contaminants of emerging concern are contaminants that need more research about how they move through the environment, where they end up, and how they might impact the environment and human health. The first class of emerging contaminants tested was pesticides, including weed-controlling triazines (e.g., atrazine and simazine) and neonicotinoid insecticides commonly used as seed coatings for corn and beans. The second class of emerging contaminants tested was pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Pharmaceuticals consist of the products used to prevent or treat disease in humans and animals. They include prescription and over-the-counter drugs such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, painkillers, etc. Personal care products consist of ingredients used in products we use to clean and adorn ourselves, such as soaps, deodorants, fragrances, insect repellants, moisturizers, shampoos, sunscreens, toothpaste, etc. The final class of emerging contaminants tested was per-and-poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also commonly known as forever chemicals. PFAS are synthetic chemicals with stain, oil, and water-resistant properties widely used in consumer and industrial products. These emerging contaminants can contaminate water in very small amounts but cause serious health risks. PFAS have been linked to cancer, hormone disruption, and immune system problems. Pesticides can cause long-term health issues like cancer and damage to the nervous system. PPCPs may affect the organs and disrupt hormone levels, especially with long-term exposure.

All 70 sites were tested for bacteria and inorganics, while only half were tested for emerging contaminants. Similarly to previous monitoring in 2013 and 2014, many roadside springs (about 86%) failed at least one drinking water standard. As shown in Figure 5, coliform bacteria was present in 86% of the springs and 21% were contaminated with E. coli. Most sites have corrosive water, presenting lead exposure risks in 17% of the roadside springs. There is no safe level of lead in drinking water. Exposure to lead in water places adults at higher risk for cancer, stroke, kidney disease, memory problems, and high blood pressure. At even greater risk are children, whose rapidly growing bodies absorb lead more quickly and efficiently. Although nitrate levels did not exceed the 10 mg/L safe drinking water standard, concentrations at some sites were high (4 – 8 mg/L N). Contaminants such as iron, manganese, chloride, and sulfate were slightly higher in 2024 monitoring than in 2013.

At least one tested emerging contaminant was found in 26% of the roadside springs. Overall, more emerging contaminants were detected in roadside springs located in regions with highly developed and agricultural land uses. Pesticides were usually found at the highest concentrations, reaching 100 ng/L (Table 1). Only one site had PFOS and PFOA above the safe drinking water standard.

Total coliforms were present at all the roadside springs where emerging contaminants were detected at an average concentration of 183 colonies per 100 mL. Similarly, nitrates were detected (0.2 - 8.3 mg/L NO₃-N) at all the sites with emerging contaminant detections, and the roadside springs with the highest nitrate levels also had the most emerging contaminants. This shows that bacteria, nitrate, and emerging contaminants are likely to originate from similar sources of contamination, such as septic systems, municipal wastewater inputs, agricultural runoff, or industrial waste that can pollute roadside springs.

Treatment and Storage Options

Patton et al. (2023) conducted laboratory experiments with collected roadside spring water and found that about two drops of household bleach (7.5% sodium hypochlorite) from an eye dropper per gallon of roadside spring water inactivated total coliform and E. coli and maintained free chlorine residuals to prevent bacteria regrowth over a one-month period. Cryptosporidium and Giardia may be killed by boiling water for several minutes or using special water treatment filters.

Chlorination and boiling can only reduce pathogens in water and do not remove any chemicals. Targeted point-of-use (POU) water treatment devices such as ion exchange, activated carbon filters, or reverse osmosis systems can help remove dissolved contaminants in roadside springs. Without laboratory testing, knowing the ideal treatments to implement is challenging.

In addition to bacteria and dissolved chemicals, most roadside springs had slightly soft and acidic water, which produces corrosive water that is aggressive toward metals and other materials. Roadside spring water must be stored in containers approved for water storage, even for non-drinking use, to prevent metals or other chemicals from leaching into the water and necessitating additional treatment.

Interactive Map with 2024 Monitoring Data

The roadside springs monitoring data have been summarized and made available through an interactive web map. This map allows users to explore water quality conditions at the time of sampling for all sampled roadside springs across the state in 2024. To access the map, visit: 2024 Roadside Spring Sampling Results

Figure 6: Screenshot of the interactive web map showing 2024 Roadside Spring Sampling Results

Summary and Recommendations

Roadside springs are a popular source of drinking water utilized regularly by more than 10% of the Pennsylvania population. Roadside spring users often point to the perceived natural pureness and good taste as the main reasons for collecting spring water. However, research conducted by Penn State Extension over the years found that nearly all roadside springs fail health-based drinking water standards during each monitoring period. Many contain E. coli bacteria; some even contain pathogenic parasites like Giardia and Cryptosporidium and even emerging contaminants that present human health risks.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the multi-year monitoring of roadside springs across Pennsylvania:

• Untreated roadside springs are unsuitable as a drinking water source.
• Water from roadside springs can be crystal clear with desirable taste but can expose you to a mixture of disease-causing pathogens and chemicals we cannot see, smell, or taste.
• Water quality in roadside springs can vary from one day to the next. A negative test result does not mean pathogens and chemicals are absent year-round.

Before collecting water from a roadside spring stop and evaluate other options:

• If water from your domestic well or spring doesn't taste right or you have other quality issues, contact a local Extension Educator to learn about water testing and ways to improve your home's water quality.
• It is safer to purchase or transport safe water to seasonal residences rather than collecting roadside spring water.
• Public drinking water is safer than roadside springs because public utilities treat and regularly test drinking water to meet federal and state safe drinking water standards. If you are concerned about the taste or quality of your tap water, contact your utility provider for guidance.
• If you're on public water with an active drinking water advisory, following the utility's advisory protocols is safer than collecting water from a roadside spring.

References and Related Publications

The Use and Regulation of Roadside Springs in Pennsylvania. A Special Report of the Joint Legislative Air and Water Pollution Control and Conservation Committee. Pennsylvania General Assembly. October 1990.

Swistock, B., Clark, J., Boser, S., Oleson, D., Galford, A., Micsky, G., & Madden, M. (2015). Issues associated with the use of untreated roadside springs as a source of drinking water. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education, 156(1), 78-85.

Bedard, B. A., Elder, R., Phillips, L., & Wachunas, M. F. (2016). Giardia outbreak associated with a roadside spring in Rensselaer County, New York. Epidemiology & Infection, 144(14), 3013-3016.

Patton, H., Krometis, L. A., Faulkner, B. B., Cohen, A., Ling, E., & Sarver, E. (2023). Developing a Simple Strategy for Roadside Spring Water Disinfection in Central Appalachia. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education, 178(1), 1-16.

US EPA. Giardia: Drinking Water Fact Sheet.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and Control of Cryptosporidiosis.

Penn State Extension. Removing Giardia Cysts from Drinking Water.

Penn State Extension. Understanding PFAS - What They Are, Their Impact, and What We Can Do.

Penn State Extension. Overview of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and Water Quality.

The research project featured in this article was funded by Penn State Extension, the U.S. Geological Survey through funding provided to the Pennsylvania Water Resources Research Center at Penn State University, and The Pennsylvania State University Science to Practice Grants.