Social Science of Drinking Water
It is estimated that 25% of Pennsylvania residents use private water systems such as wells, springs, or cisterns.1 Additionally, many private water system users, as well as residents connected to municipal water supplies, also use roadside springs on occasion. It can be difficult to pinpoint exactly how many Pennsylvanians rely on these sources of drinking water, which are not legally required to be tested for quality. This is a challenge for planners, health officials, scientists, and educators who want to understand the needs of these water users.
Social science data can be a key piece of the puzzle in addressing these gaps. In the physical sciences, water quality data is often reported measuring things such as pounds of phosphorus per year, nanograms of PFAS per liter, or millions of gallons per day. The social sciences tend to focus more on understanding things such as the perceptions, attitudes, values, and beliefs of individuals, or trends across different locations or demographic groups. Applying social science methods to water quality questions can help inform programs and policies of organizations and governments that want to improve health outcomes or access to different water sources.
US Census data is widely used in research to help answer critical questions. The last US Census to include a question about drinking water sources was 1990. That means water quality planners and researchers have been relying on the same Census dataset for over thirty years, which is one of the main reasons it is difficult to pinpoint exact numbers of affected users. That data may still be used in broad analyses in current research; however, we know that much has changed in that time span. For example, many social science studies have been done in the past several decades on people’s perceptions of water quality from various sources.
The source of a person's drinking water may be based on a combination of several factors. Access to municipal drinking water systems is not necessarily a given. In many regions of the state, that infrastructure has not been built out. When a household does have multiple options for the source of its water, considerations such as affordability and perceptions of quality may be important.2,3,4 In addition, studies have shown how perceptions of the taste, smell, and color of drinking water are only one piece of how an individual may perceive the overall quality of drinking water. Social factors such as previous experiences, trust in suppliers, familiarity with water properties, risk perception, and attitudes towards water chemicals may influence an individual's perceptions of water quality.5
People tend to make choices based on their perceptions, which have implications for where they source their water and whether they test it or treat it. Many Pennsylvanians are choosing to treat their water, even without getting accurate testing.6 In these cases, there is a risk of choosing the wrong treatment system to address a particular water quality concern or incurring costs without health benefits. While our senses can be a first indicator of water safety, it is important to rely on laboratory testing to establish if water is safe for drinking. Some harmful pollutants in drinking water cannot be discerned by our senses of smell, taste, or sight. If you ever source your water from private wells or roadside springs, here are some resources for you to learn more.
Resources for You
Private Drinking Water Wells
Current estimates of Pennsylvanians that rely on private wells as their primary source of drinking water vary widely from 1-3.4 million people.1,7,8 Penn State Extension has done extensive work with and for private well owners and users, and has collected survey data from across the state. Some of these surveys show that about half of private drinking water supplies have never been properly tested. Water quality data from studies have shown upwards of 40-50% of private wells within the region fail at least one health-based drinking water standard.8,9,10
Resources for Private Drinking Water Well Owners
If you use a private well to source your drinking water, there are resources to help you learn more about how to test your drinking water and about upgrades that could potentially improve your water quality, such as sanitary well caps. Penn State Extension also offers an online course for Private Wells and Water System Management. The PA Department of Environmental Protection, which is responsible for public drinking water safety in the Commonwealth, does have some resources and information about private wells on its website.
Roadside Springs
Like private drinking water wells, it is challenging to get accurate numbers of how many Pennsylvanians rely on, or ever source drinking water, from roadside springs. For some people, there is a perception that roadside spring water is cleaner or healthier than other sources;2 however, studies of water quality from these sources indicate the risks of contaminants.3 Penn State Extension has held dozens of workshops on the subject of roadside springs across the state and surveyed the attendees. About 30% of attendees had collected water from a roadside spring, with 30% of that group collecting water 'occasionally' or 'regularly.'11 These surveys provide Extension with data that help develop relevant programming and materials for users of roadside spring water.
Resources for Roadside Spring Water Users
Penn State Extension occasionally offers workshop events that educate people about roadside spring water and the contaminants found during research on many of these springs. If there are no scheduled workshops offered near you, then check out this video or this article to learn more.
Citations
1: Johnson, Tyler D., Kenneth Belitz, and Melissa A. Lombard. 2019. "Estimating Domestic Well Locations and Populations Served in the Contiguous U.S. for Years 2000 and 2010." Science of The Total Environment 687:1261–73. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.036.
2: Swistock, Bryan, James Clark, Susan Boser, Diane Oleson, Amy Galford, Gary Micsky, and Mark Madden. 2015. "Issues Associated with the Use of Untreated Roadside Springs as a Source of Drinking Water." Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education 156(1):78–85. doi: 10.1111/j.1936-704X.2015.03206.x.
3: Krometis, Leigh‐Anne, Hannah Patton, Austin Wozniak, and Emily Sarver. 2019. "Water Scavenging from Roadside Springs in Appalachia.” Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education 166(1):46–56. doi: 10.1111/j.1936-704X.2019.03301.x.
4: Patterson, Lauren A., Sophia A. Bryson, and Martin W. Doyle. 2023. "Affordability of Household Water Services across the United States" edited by M. Herrera. PLOS Water 2(5):e0000123. doi: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000123.
5: Doria, Miguel De França. 2010. "Factors Influencing Public Perception of Drinking Water Quality." Water Policy 12(1):1–19. doi: 10.2166/wp.2009.051.
6: Swistock, B., Clemens, S., & Sharpe, W. (2009). Drinking Water Quality in Rural Pennsylvania and the Effect of Management Practices. The Center for Rural Pennsylvania.
7: Johnson, T. D., & Belitz, K. (2017). Domestic well locations and populations served in the contiguous U.S.: 1990. Science of The Total Environment, 607–608, 658–668. doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.018
8: Clemens, Stephanie, and Bryan Swistock. 2022. "Testing Your Drinking Water." Penn State Extension.
9: Swistock, B., Clemens, S., & Rummel, S. (2012). Water Quality and Management of Private Drinking Water Wells in Pennsylvania. Journal of Environmental Health, 75(6).
10: Murray, R. T., Rosenberg Goldstein, R. E., Maring, E. F., Pee, D. G., Aspinwall, K., Wilson, S. M., & Sapkota, A. R. (2018). Prevalence of Microbiological and Chemical Contaminants in Private Drinking Water Wells in Maryland, USA. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(8), 1686.
9: Kibuye, Faith, and Susan Boser. 2025. "Understanding Water Quality Issues with Roadside Springs." Penn State Extension.
