Raspberry Production

Raspberry Production

Raspberry production can be a good fit for small farms, as a small planting of raspberries can provide significant income and equipment needs are quite modest. Raspberry plantings should fruit for at least five years and occasionally produce for more than ten years. The plants can be grown outdoors in open field production or in a high tunnel. However, raspberries should be considered a "high stakes" crop because initial investment in a planting is relatively high. Good management skills are needed to produce a quality product and substantial labor is required. Costs involved in field establishment are primarily those related to land preparation, planting, and installation of a trellis and irrigation system, whereas production in a high tunnel will add the costs of a structure. Marketing raspberries can be challenging because of their short shelf life, but demand is usually excellent and direct marketers can obtain high prices.

Raspberries come in two basic types: red and black. Yellow raspberries are a mutation of red or black raspberries, and purple raspberries are a cross between red and black raspberries. Raspberries have chilling requirements that typically limit their production to cooler regions of the United States. Black raspberries, in particular, do not tolerate summer heat. An estimated 75 percent of all domestically grown raspberries are of red varieties, though either black or red raspberries may be more popular locally.

While some information on high-tunnel production is included in this publication, the sample cost of production budgets assumes that the crop will be produced in the field since this is the typical starting point for new growers. Using high tunnels, growers have the potential to produce higher yields and better-quality fruit with a longer shelf life, but they must also consider the significant costs for the tunnel and the higher level of management required.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics Service’s 2017 Census of Agriculture, the leading raspberry-producing states are Washington, Oregon, and California, with a combined acreage of nearly 20,000 acres on about 1,400 farms. Northeastern U.S. states combined have around 1,600 acres of raspberries on over 2,300 farms; many farms in this region are highly diversified operations with a small acreage in raspberries to complement other produce offerings. Canada is a major producer of raspberries, with most of the production located in British Columbia and Ontario. Red raspberries are also widely produced in northern Europe and the southern hemisphere.

Marketing

Fresh-market raspberries usually are sold in half-pint clamshells (hinged plastic containers), which hold 5 to 6 ounces of raspberries. In the Mid-Atlantic region, raspberries are most commonly sold at farmers markets, on-farm markets or stands, as pick-your-own berries, or at produce auctions. Because raspberries are so perishable, they are well suited to marketing channels where a short amount of time is spent in the pipeline from the producer to the consumer. They may also be used in value-added products and are occasionally sold wholesale to restaurants or local grocery stores. In addition, they may be sold to other operations such as wineries for processing or through cooperatives, but prices are usually lower than through direct marketing channels.

If you are considering wholesale marketing, either the grower or a shipper can take the crop to the market. Shippers generally sell and transport the raspberries for a predetermined price. This marketing alternative is subject to the greatest price fluctuations. Marketing cooperatives generally use a daily pooled cost and price, which spreads price fluctuations over all participating producers. Local retailers are another possible market, but you must take the time to contact produce managers and provide high-quality raspberries when stores require them. Roadside stands (either your own or another grower’s) and pick-your-own operations provide opportunities to receive higher-than-wholesale prices for your fruit, but you may have some additional expenses for advertising, building and maintaining a facility, and providing service to your customers. With pick-your-own operations, you save on harvest costs, but you must be willing to accept that some of the crop will not be harvested.

Recently, there has been an increased interest in locally produced raspberries for their use in fruit wines, which can be an outlet for excess fruit. Fruit can also be frozen for later use in locally produced value-added processed products.

Prices growers have reported obtaining for fresh-market red raspberries vary tremendously depending on location—from as little as $1.50 per pound for pick-your-own operations in rural locations, to as high as $5.00 per half-pint clamshell in locations near population centers. Processed raspberry prices through wholesale outlets typically have been only one-third to one-half that obtained for fresh-market berries. Potential growers should conduct a quick survey of local prices for red raspberries before establishing their plantings. Black raspberry prices are comparable to those for red raspberries and the crop is marketed earlier in the summer.

For more information on marketing options, see "Agricultural Alternatives: Fruit and Vegetable Marketing for Small-Scale and Part-Time Growers" and "Agricultural Alternatives: Developing a Roadside Market."

Production Considerations

While high prices can be obtained for raspberries, these delicate fruits are susceptible to numerous diseases and insects, require significant labor for hand-harvesting fresh-market fruit (machine harvest is an option only for berries that will be processed), and have a short shelf life, especially when field grown. Therefore, the production of a good crop from year to year requires careful management.

Site Selection

Raspberries grow best on sunny sites with well-drained soil. Poorly drained soils contain large amounts of clay and have low (less than 2 percent) organic matter content. The slope of the site should be no greater than 12 percent for field production and 5 percent for tunnel production. Water running off a sloping site alone does not mean that the soil is well drained.

Rotational Considerations, Cover Crops, and Fumigation

Do not use a site that was very recently in sod because it can harbor grubs and wireworms that can damage the raspberry roots. Also, raspberry plantings should not follow Verticillium-susceptible crops, such as peppers, eggplant, tomatoes, potatoes, or strawberries. Soil that has been used to grow these crops should be cropped for five to eight years with a non-Verticillium-susceptible crop. Crops in the grass family (oat, wheat, etc.) are good choices in rotations prior to raspberry planting because they host few diseases or insects that are problems for raspberry production. Depending on the previous use of the land, a nematode survey may be recommended. If nematodes are present, a cover crop of rapeseed plowed under as a green manure is an option. Cover cropping for at least a year with rye or sudangrass is a highly recommended practice that will help control weeds prior to planting the raspberries. The cover crop can also be plowed under to provide additional organic matter, especially in heavier soils. Chemical fumigation is not commonly used but may be warranted under certain circumstances, such as where soilborne diseases have been problematic or nematode populations are very high. Chemical fumigation requires a specific pesticide applicator license, specialized equipment, and familiarity with regulations related to use. You may wish to contact your local pesticide supplier when considering this option.

Growth Habit

The raspberry plant has one of two growth habits: summer-bearing or everbearing.

Summer-bearing (also referred to as floricane-fruiting) raspberries are the type that have been traditionally grown and are often seen growing wild. The individual canes of brambles are biennial, while the root systems are perennial. In the first year of planting, vegetative canes are produced. The following year, these same canes flower and produce fruit. While they are flowering and fruiting, new vegetative canes ("suckers") are produced from buds on the roots (red or gold raspberries) or buds in the crown area (black raspberries), which then grow throughout the summer. These canes will bear the next year’s crop. Fruiting canes die shortly after harvest. Therefore, a mature summer-bearing raspberry planting has two types of canes: vegetative canes that originated during the current year (primocanes) and fruiting canes that originated during the previous year (floricanes). Fruit is usually harvested in mid-summer.

Everbearing (also referred to as primocane-fruiting or fall-bearing) raspberries produce primocanes that are capable of flowering and fruiting in the same year they emerge. Once the cane reaches its mature length, it begins fruiting at the tip, with progressively lower flower buds breaking on the cane as the season proceeds. Because the canes will not reach their mature length until mid-summer, fruiting is later than for summer-bearing raspberries. Fruiting usually begins in late August and continues until a hard frost or freeze. In field production, the canes of primocane-bearing raspberry plants are usually mowed to the ground every winter because the next year’s crop does not require the previous season’s canes. However, if the canes are not removed, they will produce a small summer crop from previously unbroken fruit buds low on the cane and hence are sometimes referred to as "everbearers." In protected culture such as high tunnels where the growing season is lengthened, cane growth is more vigorous, canes are longer, and the summer crop is much more substantial than in field production.

Some commonly grown cultivars of summer-bearing red raspberries are Prelude (early season) and Nova (mid-season). Commonly grown primocane-fruiting cultivars of red raspberries are Caroline and Joan J, which begin producing in mid- to late August, and Heritage, which begins producing in early September. In high tunnels, it is often feasible to obtain a crop from late-season primocane-fruiting varieties that may not have time to fruit before fall frost in the field. Commonly grown black raspberries include Jewel, a summer-bearer, and Niwot, a primocane-fruiter. Those establishing new plantings in cooler locations may wish to choose early summer-bearing red raspberry varieties or summer-bearing black raspberries, as they are largely finished fruiting by the time spotted wing drosophila, a troublesome pest of raspberries, is present.

Soil Testing and Fertilization

The soil pH should be between 6.0 and 6.5. Conduct soil tests and apply lime in the fall before spring planting. Appy and incorporate nitrogen—and phosphorus and potassium if needed—prior to planting in the spring. Usually, no additional fertilizer is needed in the planting year. Thereafter, apply nitrogen annually, starting with low rates (20 to 40 pounds per acre) the year after planting and gradually increasing to roughly twice as much the third year after planting. Half the fertilizer should be applied at budbreak, and the other half four to six weeks later. Fertilizer rates for bramble plantings are provided on a per-acre basis, with the full per-acre rate banded over the row, not broadcast. Precise rates vary with type of plant, soil type, and availability of irrigation. Similar rates are used in both field and high-tunnel production, with the exception that more potassium will likely be needed in high tunnels due to greater removal from the increased crop load. Water-soluble fertilizers, rather than dry granular types, are used to apply nutrients through the irrigation system. Conduct soil and tissue tests every two years to keep fertilizer programs on track.

Planting

Planting methods are similar for both field and tunnel production, with the exception that planting can take place much earlier in the spring in a tunnel. Both summer-bearing and everbearing cultivars readily produce new shoots. Red raspberries, which establish a solid hedgerow of canes, are usually planted 24 inches apart, and black raspberries are planted 30 inches apart within the rows. Row spacing decisions depend on the size of your equipment. Rows are typically spaced 8 to 12 feet apart in field production, and 7 feet to 8 feet apart in tunnel production. Resist the urge to put rows closer together in tunnels—plant growth nearly always exceeds expectations. Purchase tissue-cultured plantlets (if available) or nursery-matured stock of site-appropriate cultivars from a reputable nursery. If using tissue-cultured plants, plant in May after the danger of hard frost has passed; nursery-matured plants may be planted as soon as the soil can be worked. Good soil-to-root contact is a necessity for good growth. Apply 4 inches of clean straw mulch (about 0.6 tons of straw per acre) within the row immediately after planting. This practice maintains soil moisture and helps with weed control, improving plant survival and vigor. However, straw mulch should be used only during the establishment year because excessive moisture under the mulch of established plantings can increase incidence of root-rotting diseases.

Irrigation

Irrigation is highly recommended and will help ensure a more consistent crop from year to year. Trickle irrigation is greatly preferred over overhead irrigation because it adds water directly to the root zone and does not wet the fruit, and less water is lost through evaporation. More information on irrigation can be found in Agricultural Alternatives: Irrigation for Fruit and Vegetable Production" and "Agricultural Alternatives: Drip Irrigation for Vegetable Production."

Pruning and Trellising

Pruning is necessary to keep the planting under control, remove old canes and disease inoculum, and maximize air and sunlight infiltration into the canopy. Pruning varies with plant type. During dormant pruning, which occurs in late winter, floricane-fruiting red raspberries are thinned by hand to a cane density of four to six canes per linear foot of row, and black raspberries are thinned to five to seven canes per plant. Primocane-fruiters of each type for which a summer crop is desired are pruned similarly. Primocane-fruiters intended for only a fall crop may be cut off at ground level in the spring. For floricane-fruiters, summer pruning consists of removing floricanes after harvest is complete and tipping floricane-fruiting black raspberries in mid-summer to encourage lateral formation. Mowing along the sides of the rows of all raspberry types ensures the base of the rows are contained at approximately a 12-inch width.

The simplest trellis design is a supported hedgerow trellis, which has wires that support the canes and run the length of each side of the row. Depending on the amount of cane growth, one or two cross-arms may be needed, with the lowest wire at a height of about 3 to 4 feet.

Pollinator Protection

Raspberry blossoms are extremely attractive to honey bees, bumble bees, solitary bees, and other pollinators, and the soft pith in the cane center makes tipped canes attractive to solitary bees looking for nesting sites. Blooming weeds within the rows and row middles may also attract them. Protecting pollinators while managing pests is an important consideration for raspberry growers because bees contribute significantly to the yield and quality of fruit. This requires an integrated approach to pest management to reduce risk to pollinators and control target insects. When foraging for pollen and nectar or nesting, bees are sensitive to many of the chemicals used to control raspberry pests. Pollinator stewardship should be part of your IPM (integrated pest management) strategy to minimize risk to pollinating insects.

Pest Control

Several insects and diseases can injure or destroy raspberries. Pest management involves many aspects of production, with pesticide application being only one. Many pest problems can be avoided through proper site selection, crop rotation, variety selection, improving soil health, and planting disease-free plants. Try to use all available practices to reduce the potential for disease and insect damage.

Diseases that may affect plantings of raspberries include gray mold, which is a common fruit rot of red and black raspberries; orange rust, which is a systemic disease of black raspberries; Phytophthora root rot, which primarily affects red raspberries in heavy soils; and Verticillium wilt, which affects black raspberries. Diseases that primarily affect the canes include anthracnose, cane blight, and spur blight. Red and black raspberries are also susceptible to a number of viruses.

The most problematic insect pest is the spotted wing drosophila, an invasive fruit fly that lays eggs in fruit, resulting in the presence of small, white larvae in berries. This pest does not survive cold winters in high numbers, but each female lay 100 to 200 eggs starting in late spring or early summer and rapidly develops through multiple generations in a growing season, resulting in severe infestations if not controlled. Other pests include the Japanese beetle, which feeds on foliage and fruit; two-spotted spider mites, which are especially problematic in high tunnels; and several borers that can tunnel within the canes.

Weeds must be controlled in a raspberry planting. Raspberries have shallow root systems, which puts them at a disadvantage when competing for water and nutrients. Some weeds also harbor insects and disease. The first steps in weed management are to avoid sites with persistent weed problems and eliminate weeds before planting. Mulch and herbicides can be used to control weeds after establishment. A permanent slow-growing sod such as hard fescue is recommended to suppress weeds between the rows. In small plantings, weed barrier landscape fabric can be used. Its use is better suited to black raspberry plantings since the plants remain as individuals. The fabric may be applied over the entire planting or just within row. In red raspberry plantings, landscape fabric must be applied in such a way to leave an opening for the hedgerow of canes to emerge.

Wildlife Damage

Raspberry plants do not typically suffer extensive damage from wildlife. Birds may peck at some of the earliest ripening berries, though damage is usually minimal. Voles will girdle stems over the winter, especially if cover within the planting (such as landscape fabric, many weeds, or a high tunnel) provides them a safe haven. Rabbits occasionally chew the bark despite the presence of thorns, and deer will feed on canes in winters when other food is scarce.

Harvest and Storage

With field-grown summer-bearing raspberries, the first significant crop is usually obtained during the third year after planting. Primocane-bearing plants usually yield a significant crop in the second year. At maturity (about four years old), field plantings of red raspberries should produce about 5,000 pounds of fruit per acre, though not all will be harvested in pick-your-own fields. Black raspberry yields are about half those of red raspberries. Tunnel-grown primocane-fruiting raspberries may produce a viable harvest the same year as planted, if planted early in the spring; second-year summer and fall production is substantial. High-tunnel production will be at least double that of field production for both red and black raspberries.

Raspberries must be firm, well-colored, and free of insects and rot for market. If harvested at the proper time and handled carefully, raspberries will remain in good condition for several days. Because the fruit is fragile, it should be picked and packed directly into containers without further sorting. Pickers must be closely supervised and instructed to harvest only high-quality fruit. The fruit should be harvested at least once every three days, with adjustments made to the picking schedule based on weather conditions. Losses to spotted wing drosophila can be reduced if fruit is harvested daily or every other day.

Proper postharvest handling of raspberries is essential if you are to be a successful marketer. Cooling the berries to remove field heat and improve shelf life is especially important. Harvesting early in the day while temperatures are cooler and then precooling the fruit before shipment significantly extends shelf life. Berries should be refrigerated immediately after harvest and stored at temperatures as close to 32 degrees as possible to minimize loss to spotted wing drosophila.

Environmental Regulations

In the normal course of operations, farmers handle pesticides and other chemicals, may have manure to collect and spread, and use equipment to prepare fields and harvest crops. Any of these routine on-farm activities can be a potential source of surface water or groundwater pollution. Because of this possibility, you must understand the regulations to follow concerning the proper handling and application of chemicals and the disposal and transport of waste. Depending on the watershed where your farm is located, there may be additional environmental regulations regarding erosion control, pesticide leaching, and nutrient runoff. Contact your soil and water conservation district, extension office, zoning board, state departments of agriculture and environmental protection, and your local governing authorities to determine what regulations may pertain to your operation.

Good Agricultural Practices and Good Handling Practices

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Handling Practices (GHP) are voluntary programs that you may wish to consider for your operation. The idea behind these programs is to ensure a safer food system by reducing the chances that contaminated produce will reach consumers and cause foodborne illnesses. Several major food distribution chains are beginning to require GAP- and GHP-certified products from their producers. These programs set standards for worker hygiene, use of manure, and water supply quality.

These practices require an inspection from a designated third party, and there are fees associated with the inspection. Prior to an inspection, you will need to develop and implement a food safety plan and designate someone in your operation to oversee this plan. At least twice each year, you will need to have any water supply used by your workers or for crop irrigation and pesticide application checked for possible contamination. For more information about the GAP and GHP programs, go to GAP and GHP Program website or contact your local extension office or your state’s Department of Agriculture.

Risk Management

You should carefully consider how to manage risk on your farm. First, you should insure your facilities and equipment. This may be accomplished by consulting your insurance agent or broker. It is especially important to have adequate levels of property, vehicle, and liability insurance. You will also need workers’ compensation insurance if you have any employees. You may also want to consider your needs for life and health insurance and if you need coverage for business interruption or employee dishonesty. For more on agricultural business insurance, see "Agricultural Alternatives: Agricultural Business Insurance."

Second, check to see if there are multi-peril crop insurance programs available for your crop or livestock enterprises. There are crop insurance programs designed to help farmers manage both yield risk and revenue shortfalls. However, individual crop insurance coverage is not available for all crops. If individual coverage is not available for what you grow, you may be able to use the Whole-Farm Revenue Protection (WFRP) program to insure the revenue of your entire farm operation. Information from your Schedule F tax records (or a "Substitute Schedule F for WFRP Purposes" if you do not file a Schedule F) from the past five consecutive years is used to calculate the WFRP policy’s approved revenue guarantee. Operations that have expanded over time may be allowed to increase the approved revenue amount based on an indexing procedure. Depending on the number of commodities grown, you have the choice of coverage of 50 to 85 percent of your approved revenue. Coverage and premium costs depend on the level of diversification in your operation; the maximum level of insured revenue is $8.5 million (based on maximum adjusted gross revenues of $17 million and the 50 percent coverage level). WFRP also provides replant coverage if it not already covered under an underlying individual crop policy.

Finally, the USDA Farm Service Agency has a program called the Noninsured Assistance Program (NAP) that is designed to provide a minimal level of yield risk protection for producers of commercial agricultural products that don’t have multi-peril crop insurance coverage. NAP is designed to reduce financial losses when natural disasters cause catastrophic reduction in production. A basic level of coverage (50 percent of expected production at 55 percent of the average market price) is available for a fee of $325 per crop per county (fees are capped at $825 per producer per county, but not to exceed a total of $1,950 for producers growing crops in multiple counties). Higher levels of protection at the 50, 55, 60, and 65 percent levels at 100 percent of the average market price are available for additional premium. NAP coverage is available through your local USDA Farm Service Agency office. The application fee for this program may be waived for eligible limited-resource farmers.

Sample Budgets

Estimated fixed costs in this budget assume that all field operations for land preparation are done by custom operators. Ownership of tillage equipment, grain drills, and grass seeders is not economically justified for growers engaged solely in small fruit production. Fixed costs in this budget reflect the ownership of a compact tractor, sprayer, and mower. In situations where hiring custom operators is not possible, tasks such as applying fertilizers and seeding row middles may be accomplished manually or with smaller pieces of equipment. Included in this publication are five annual budgets for red raspberry field production. The first summarizes the costs of land preparation, the second covers the establishment of the raspberry planting, and the third summarizes costs and returns for the year after planting. The fourth summarizes the costs and returns for a mature (four-year-old) raspberry planting for retail marketing. Intermediate production years (years two and three) are not included. These years would have fewer receipts and lower harvest costs than a mature planting. The fifth budget summarizes costs and returns for a pick-your-own operation. These sample budgets should help ensure all costs and receipts are included in your calculations. While the budgets are calculated for one acre of production, a beginning grower should start much smaller. Costs and returns are often difficult to estimate in budget preparation because they are numerous and variable. Therefore, you should think of these budgets as an approximation and then make appropriate adjustments in the "Your Estimate" column to reflect your specific production and resource situation. More information on the use of crop budgets can be found in "Agricultural Alternatives: Budgeting for Agricultural Decision Making."

You can make changes to the interactive PDF budget files for this publication by inputting your own prices and quantities in the green outlined cells for any item. The cells outlined in red automatically calculate your revised totals based on the changes you made to the cells outlined in green. You will need to click on and add your own estimated price and quantity information to all of the green outlined cells to complete your customized budget. When you are finished, you can print the budget using the green Print Form button at the bottom of the form. You can use the red Clear Form button to clear all the information from your budget when you are finished.

Sample Budget Worksheets

• Sample Red Raspberry Budget - Land Preparation Budget
• Sample Red Raspberry Budget - Planting Budget
• Sample Red Raspberry Budget - Second Year of Production Budget
• Sample Red Raspberry Budget - Retail Marketing Production Budget
• Sample Red Raspberry Budget - Pick-Your-Own Production Budget

Initial Resource Requirements

• Land: 1 acre
• Labor:
• Land preparation: 3 hours
• Establishment: 90-110 hours
• Production (year 1): 30-45 hours
• Production (mature): 60-70 hours
• Custom harvest labor (mature): $10,000-$11,500
• Capital:
• Land preparation: $400-$500
• Red raspberry plants: $2,900-$3,100
• Trellis: $5,000-$6,000
• Trickle irrigation: $1,000

For More Information

Publications

Bushway, L., M. Pritts, and D. Handley, eds. Raspberry and Blackberry Production Guide. Ithaca, N.Y.: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 2008. Subsequently published via PALS.

Demchak, K., coord. The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide for Commercial Growers, 2013-2014. University Park: Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences, 2013.

Dunn, J., J. Berry, L. Kime, R. M. Harsh, and J. Harper. "Agricultural Alternatives: Developing a Roadside Farm Market." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2006.

Dunn, J., J. Harper, and L. Kime. "Agricultural Alternatives: Fruit and Vegetable Marketing for Small-scale and Part-time Growers." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2009.

Harper, J. K., S. Cornelisse, L. F. Kime, and J. Hyde. "Agricultural Alternatives: Budgeting for Agricultural Decision Making." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2019

Kime, L., J. Adamik, E. Gantz, and J. Harper. "Agricultural Alternatives: Agricultural Business Insurance." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2019.

Lamont, W. J., J. K. Harper, A. R. Jarrett, M. D. Orzolek, R. M. Crassweller, K. Demchak, and G. L. Greaser. "Agricultural Alternatives: Irrigation for Fruit and Vegetable Production." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2001.

Lamont, W. J., M. D. Orzolek, J. K. Harper, L. F. Kime, and A. R. Jarrett. "Agricultural Alternatives: Drip Irrigation for Vegetable Production." University Park: Penn State Extension, 2012.

May, E., J. Wilson, and R. Isaacs. "Minimizing Pesticide Risk to Bees in Fruit Crops." Extension Bulletin E3245. Michigan State University, 2015.

Park, M., B. Danforth, J. Losey, D. Biddinger, M. Vaughan, J. Dollar, and A. Agnello. "Wild Pollinators of Eastern Apple Orchards and How to Conserve Them." Northeast IPM Center, 2015.

Associations

American Pomological Society
102 Tyson Building
University Park, PA 16802

North American Raspberry and Blackberry Association
197 Spring Creek Road
Pittsboro, NC 27312

Pennsylvania Vegetable Growers Association
815 Middle Road
Richfield, PA 17086-9205
Email: pvga@pvga.org

Authors

Prepared by Kathleen Demchak, senior extension associate in horticulture; Jayson K. Harper, professor of agricultural economics; Leah R. Fronk, extension educator in horticulture; and Lynn F. Kime, senior extension associate in agricultural economics.

This publication was developed by the Small-scale and Part-time Farming Project at Penn State with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture–Extension Service.