Assessing Broadband Service Revisions under the BEAD Program
This report focuses on four critical questions:
- Can LEO’s get gig speeds?
- Can these technologies provide reliable gigabit speeds?
- Are they sustainable and scalable over time?
- What insight does GIS mapping provide about their current and future performance?
These findings reveal that while LEO and FWA technologies can help close short-term coverage gaps, they do not meet the long-term performance and reliability standards set by 47 U.S.C. § 1702. Only fiber networks consistently deliver the speed, durability, and scalability required for future broadband needs.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite Networks Analysis
1. Darwish, T., Kurt, G. K., Yanikomeroglu, H., Bellemare, M., & Lamontagne, G. (2021). LEO Satellites in 5G and Beyond Networks: A Review from a Standardization Perspective.
LEO satellite networks are becoming increasingly important for expanding global internet connectivity, particularly for integrating with 5G and future telecommunications systems. While LEO networks are a cost-effective alternative to terrestrial fiber optics for connecting remote edge clouds to core data centers, current user access bandwidths are around 0.5 Gbps with ground station links reaching approximately 2.5 Gbps. A significant challenge is managing data transfer efficiency; for instance, a 10 MB transfer can take about 156ms on the access network. However, advancements such as the Data Volume Aware (DVA) algorithm are proving to be effective, most notably in reducing transmission duration by roughly 70% and more than doubling throughput alongside offering rapid computation times under 1ms for real-time scheduling. LEOs can introduce complexities such as frequent handovers and dynamic topology changes.
2. Fiber Broad Band Association Technology Committee (2021). Fiber-to-the-Home vs. Emerging LEOS: Broadband Networks Capability Assessment.
LEO broadband networks such as Starlink are unlikely to consistently provide gig speeds for many users. While a single Starlink satellite claims to provide up to 20 Gb/s of capacity, this is shared across a vast area of 28,000 km^2. For internet speed, Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) with XGS-PON is much faster in rural areas, offering 500 times more capacity. Starlink users saw actual download speeds of 40-93 Mbps in early 2021, which is less than their promised 100 Mbps. During busy times, many Starlink users (25-29%) might get less than 10 Mbps, and over half (56-57%) could see slower service. It’s not clear if LEO technology like Starlink will be a main internet choice because it’s still new and unproven. FTTH is expected to reach over 60% of US homes in the next five years, while LEOs might only reach 1% by 2026.
3. Jonas Sedin, Luca Feltrin & Xingqin Lin. (2020). Throughput and Capacity Evaluation of 5G New Radio Non-Terrestrial Networks with LEO Satellites.
LEO satellites operating in the Ka-band with 400 MHz of bandwidth can achieve downlink speeds of approximately 7 Gbps. This rate is comparable to fiber-optic networks. At an average user demand of 2 Mbps, a single satellite could support up to 3,500 users, which makes it a highly effective solution for expanding internet access in rural and remote areas. These regions, which have low user densities around 0.035 users/km^2, stand to benefit significantly from such high-capacity coverage. LEO satellites using the S-band (30 MHz) offer downlink speeds up to 600 Mbps, which, though lower than ka-band, are strong enough to support handheld devices in hard-to-reach areas where terrestrial networks fall short. They also deliver low latency (30-100 ms), crucial for real-time applications like video calls, gaming, and remote work. These are vital for rural economic and social engagement.
4. Kinman, G., Zillic, Z., & Purnell, D. (2023). Scheduling Sparse LEO Satellite Transmissions for Remote Water Level Monitoring.
This paper explores the use of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite links for long-term water level monitoring in remote areas. The technology is suitable for long-term use due to its energy consumption optimization, which is critical for remote sensing. The study focuses on energy-efficient and cost-effective satellite-based connectivity for environmental monitoring. The study notes that the data rate is limited and frequent transmissions consume energy. The proposed system sends one 128-bit message per hour to fit within a single Swarm data plan, which costs USD 60 per year. Each data plan allows up to 750 packets per month which equates to 25 packets per day or one per hour. For finer temporal resolution, such as every 15 minutes, measurements would need to be bundled or multiple data plans would be required, which would increase cost and reduce battery life. The paper implements a GNSS-IR water level detection system on a printed circuit board (PCB) that includes a Swarm M138 LEO Modem, a Raspberry Pi Pico, and pads for four GNSS modules for water-level measurement. This GNSS-IR technology has the potential to increase the density of coastal water-level stations. The study highlights that ground-based sensors provide greater accuracy and temporal resolution for field measurements compared to remote sensing satellites.
5. Leyva-Mayorga, I., Gost, M. M., Perez-Neira, A., Popovski, P., & Soret, B. (2023). Satellite edge computing for real-time and very-high resolution Earth observation.
The article presents findings on optimizing Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites using a system called Satellite Mobile Edge Computing (SMEC). Simulated downlink speeds reached up to 2.16 Gbps, with inter-satellite links achieving 10 Gbps, confirming that gigabit-class performance is possible. Image processing was up to 4x faster, and the system could handle 12x more image data than traditional direct-download methods. Additionally, energy consumption was reduced by up to 90%, making this approach not only fast but also highly efficient for long-term use. SMEC’s distributed processing reduces backlogs and enables near real-time capabilities, which is Important for tasks like disaster response. The article includes a case study on La Palma, demonstrating SMEC’s effectiveness in fast scalable GIS mapping from orbit.
6. Lin, X., Cioni, S., Charbit, G., et al. (2021). On the Path to 6G: Embracing the Next Wave of Low Earth Orbit Satellite Access.
LEO satellite networks are built to scale over time, with constellations like Starlink already developing over 1,600 satellites and already planning for thousands more. The article confirms that gigabit-class speeds are possible particularly using Ka-, Ku, and V-band spectrums with gigahertz-wide bandwidths, which offers throughput comparable to terrestrial LTE or even fiber in underserved areas. Speed remains scalable over time, which is driven by technologies such as multi-beam steering, onboard digital processing, and beam hopping, all of which allow satellites to allocate bandwidth as demand grows. The system’s latency remains low (30-100 ms) due to the proximity of LEOs (around 600 km altitude). Additionally, the authors emphasize the long-term viability of LEO tech through deep integration with 3GPP-based 5G and future 6G networks, which enables devices to switch between satellite and terrestrial services.
7. Malfara, David. Copy of Data Shows Starlink Fails BEAD Eligibility. Big Bang Broadband LLC, June 2025.
David Malfara, CEO of Big Bang Broadband, presents a technical analysis of why Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks like Starlink cannot reliably deliver gigabit speeds because each beam only supports 500 Mbps and must divide that among dozens or hundreds of users. Though LEO technology offers wide coverage, its long-term use is questionable under BEAD rules because satellites only last about five years, which forces costly replacements halfway through the required 10-year performance window. Speeds decline sharply during congestion or bad weather, with many users reporting <10 Mbps which is well below federal benchmarks. Latency also routinely exceeds BEAD’s 100 ms threshold due to unavoidable satellite handoffs every 15 seconds. As for GIS mapping, federal and state agencies now use advanced geospatial overlays that compare actual subscriber data and beam coverage. These maps clearly reveal where LEO systems like Starlink fall short. In total, while LEO provides innovation in reach, it fails across every BEAD metric: speed, latency, reliability, and longevity.
8. Malfara, David. Policies May Pivot. Big Bang Broadband LLC. June 2025
According to the 2024 FCC Measuring Broadband America Report, Starlink’s upload speeds generally range from 5 to 20 Mbps, with latency between 30-50 milliseconds. These speeds can drop even further during peak usage, meaning Starlink and similar Low Earth Orbit satellite systems struggle to deliver consistent high-performance internet. Based on this and other engineering data, the authors argue that LEO systems are not capable of meeting the future broadband needs laid out in federal law which requires networks to scale over time to support services such as 5G and future technologies. The article criticizes a new NTIA rule that favors the cheapest broadband projects, even if those projects won’t hold up in the long run. It makes the case that only fiber networks are truly ready for the future.
9. McKinley, Tom. LEO Suitability for Northwest Pennsylvania. CoreConnect Community Broadband. (2025).
This article argues that Low Earth Orbit satellite internet, like Starlink and Kuiper, are a poor fit for the region’s challenging environmental and topographical conditions. It points to dense tree cover, mountainous terrain, and wet, cloudy weather that degrade satellite signals. This in turn requires costly tall towers for line-of-sight. Even then speeds can degrade significantly. Studies show a 50% drop in upload and around 38% in download during moderate rain, and double-digit losses from overcast skies alone.
While LEO cannot technically offer gigabit speeds under ideal conditions, the article suggests that in places like Northwestern PA, performance will be unreliable, making it unsuitable as long-term solution for broadband. Additionally, because LEO providers might not be obligated to account for tower infrastructure in their bids under the BEAD program, the document warns of unfair advantages over fiber providers. GIS mapping has already revealed these terrain-based limitations, and CoreConnect argues that maps and models must reflect realistic performance outcomes to ensure federal funding decisions support technologies that truly serve unserved areas reliably.
10. Mohan, N., Ferguson, A.E., Cech H., Bose, R., Renatin, P.R., Marina, M.K., & Ott, J (2023). A Multifaceted Look at Starlink Performance.
This study confirms that Starlink’s latency remains consistently around 40 milliseconds, comparable to 5G networks, and capable of supporting real-time applications like Zoom and cloud gaming. It also finds that LEO satellite networks do not currently deliver gigabit speeds to typical users, most observed download rates fall between 100-200 Mbps, with occasional dips and variability. However, the study shows strong evidence that LEO satellite internet is scalable over time. Using 19.2 million M-Lab speed tests collected from 34 countries since June 2021, along with RIPE Atlas probes and controlled tests, the authors document steady improvements in both speed and latency as more satellites and ground infrastructure are deployed. This trend demonstrates that LEO technology can evolve and improve in response to growing demand. While not a complete replacement for fiber in high-density areas, the article suggests that LEO satellites are a viable long-term solution for rural broadband, particularly in hard-to-reach regions where traditional infrastructure is not cost-effective. It notes, however, that geography such as terrain and foliage, and network congestion can still affect performance, meaning LEO is most reliable in open areas with good line-of-sight access to the sky.
11. Riera-Palou, F., Femenias, G., Caus, M., Shaat, M., & Perez-Neira, A. I. (2022) Scalable Cell-Free Massive MIMO Networks with LEO Satellite Support.
Users in the combined ground-LEO satellite network achieved average speeds of 100 Mbps and 60 Mbps, which shows the system’s ability to deliver fast high-capacity internet. The satellite component uses 30 MHz of bandwidth and transmits at 40 dBw. This provides a strong and reliable signal. Latency stays low, usually between 30 and 100 ms which is comparable to ground networks, making it suitable for real-time applications. The system is scalable, with a smart algorithm that shifts users between ground and satellite as needed to maintain performance. With LEO satellites now supporting broadband coverage and high-speed services, and their integration into 5G and future 6G networks already underway, this approach is positioned for long-term success in meeting global demand.
12. Zhang Shengyu, Yeung Kwan L. (2022). Scalable routing in low-Earth orbit satellite constellations: Architecture and algorithms. Computer Communications, 188, 26-38.
The paper proposes a scalable, two-layer routing architecture that reduces forwarding table size and manages frequent route changes caused by LEO satellite movement. The routing algorithms Delay Bounded Routing (DBR) and Delay-Aware Routing (DAR) minimize route changes while maintaining low latency. This makes LEO networks more stable and manageable over time, which supports long-term scalability and operational viability. The paper notes that applying shortest-path routing in dynamic LEO networks can cause frequent route changes (every 10 seconds) which in turn may lead to packet delays, drops, or out of order delivery. This finding implies that routing stability directly affects speed consistency and service quality, especially under heavy user loads.
13. Zhao, Z., Chen, Z., Lin, Z., Zhu, W., Qiu, K., You, C., & Gao, Y. (2024). LEO Satellite Networks Assisted Geo-Disturbed Data Processing.
LEO satellite networks are a cost-effective solution for connecting edge clouds to core clouds for geo-distributed data processing, which aims to provide high-bandwidth, low-latency internet globally. While capable of high speeds (Starlink ground stations at 2.5 Gbps) user access bandwidth is typically lower (0.5 Gbps). Despite the promise of LEO satellite networks, data transfer can still pose a challenge, with a 10MB transfer taking approximately 156 ms on the access network. This limitation is significantly mitigated by the Data Volume Aware (DVA) algorithm, which has been shown to reduce transmission duration by around 70% and double throughput. DVA’s rapid computation time, under 1ms, is essential for real-time scheduling. Additionally, this technology is suitable for long-term deployment, which focuses on energy efficiency for remote sensing.
A Comprehensive Analysis of Fixed Wireless
14. Afflerbach, Andrew L., Fixed Wireless Technologies and Their Suitability for Broadband Delivery, Benton Institute (2022).
Fixed wireless access (FWA) is a growing broadband delivery method that uses radio signals from base stations to reach customer antennas, but its long-term use is constrained by several technical and cost limitations. While FWA technologies can achieve high download speeds of up to 1 Gbps in optimal urban conditions, their performance is often reduced in rural areas due to line-of-sight issues, network congestion, and weather interference. The report shows that even with advances like beamforming, speeds tend to drop when networks are heavily loaded or poorly aligned. For long-term viability, fixed wireless requires frequent hardware replacement every five years. This raises operating costs compared to fiber. Fiber networks have an expected lifespan of over 30-50 years with minimal replacement needs. GIS networks reveal that wireless networks often fail to serve every household due to physical and geographic barriers. These findings show that while fixed wireless can be a useful solution, fiber remains the more sustainable and reliable long-term investment for broadband deployment.
15. Daoud, Mohamed, Hubbard, Matthew, Aggarwal, Rajeev, and Hmimy, Hossam. On The Performance of CBRS Fixed Wireless Access: Coverage and Capacity Field Study. (2019).
Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) offers a solution for providing long-lasting high-speed internet to rural American communities. Charter’s extensive field trials have shown that a typical FWA cell can achieve a radius of 3.5 to 5 miles, showing the technology’s potential for broad coverage. Thick trees can block the signal but putting the customer equipment at or above the height of trees helps a lot with signal quality and speed, making the connection stronger. Tests also confirmed that a 50 Mbps download speed is enough for a typical family, even when several people are streaming 4k videos or playing online games at the same time. Using GIS mapping tools is important for making the network last and perform well, as it helps find the best spots to install CPE to avoid signal problems and use the spectrum efficiently. This allows companies like Charter to expand their internet service by using their existing fiber networks and towers to reach new customers where it’s too expensive to lay fiber.
16. Du, J., Chizhik, D., Feick, R., Rodriguez M., Castro, G., & Valenzuela, R. A. (2019). Suburban Fixed Wireless Access Channel Measurements and Models at 28 GHz for 90% Outdoor Coverage.
The study investigates the performance of fixed wireless access (FWA) using 28 GHz mmWave frequencies in suburban environments. The study confirms that FWA can achieve gigabit speeds, with 1 Gbps downlink rates attainable at distances up to 100 meters from a lamppost-mounted base station on the same street, assuming line-of-sight conditions and 800 MHz bandwidth. While the results support short-range high-speed deployment, the technology’s long-term viability is limited by environmental factors. Performance drops sharply across streets or with obstructions, and indoor coverage is not addressed. The study also documents actual signal degradation due to vegetation and non-line-of-sight propagation, which shows excess losses up to 25 dB at 100 meters and reduced beamforming gain by as much as 6.5 dB.
17. Kostelnick, J.C., Thayn, J.B., & Sinha, K. (2024). Mapping and Spatial Analysis to Expand Rural Broadband Access. Papers in Applied Geography, 10(2), 154-175.
The technologies used to expand rural broadband access, such as Geographic Information systems (GIS) spatial analysis and remote sensing tools like LiDAR, aerial imagery, and Cropland Data Layer, are sustainable, scalable, and built for long-term use. They rely on accessible open-source data and have already been successfully implemented in broadband planning across five Illinois counties, which shows their adaptability. While these tools don’t directly increase internet speeds, they enable providers to efficiently identify optimal sites for infrastructures, such as silos and water towers. These fixed wireless networks can deliver high-speed service comparable to fiber in some cases. This deployment results in improved broadband performance and expanding coverage. Significant GIS mapping efforts have already been carried out, including the overlay of unserved regions with agricultural zones to assess potential economic impact and the creation of interactive web maps that guide investment and advocacy. These technologies provide a future model for rural broadband development nationwide.
18. Patel, S., Viorel, D., & Sun, R. (2022). Rural 5G Fixed Wireless Access. Economic Analysis and Methodology.
This article strongly supports the long-term viability and scalability of Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) in rural areas. It shows that FWA can meet growing broadband demand through strategic capacity planning and infrastructure upgrades. The model projects household broadband consumption growing at 25% annually, and designs networks to support 100 Mbps down/10 Mbps up speeds with 95% availability over time. Scalability is achieved by allowing providers to adjust fill rates, add spectrum, deploy more advanced radios and customer equipment. The technology is built to evolve components like antennas, radios, cabling, and networking gear are expected to be replaced every few years, making the network upgradable rather than obsolete. Additionally, spectrum licenses can be treated as long-term indefinite assets, further supporting the financial operational sustainability of FWA. Overall, the report positions mid-band 5G FWA as flexible, adaptive, and as an economically rational solution for extending rural broadband over the long term.
Conclusion
LEO satellite and fixed wireless technologies are promising tools that help close the broadband gaps in rural areas. However, when it comes to speed, reliability, and long-term performance, both fall short of BEAD’s standards. They face issues such as congestion, weather interference, and frequent hardware replacement. Fiber on the other hand, delivers faster, more reliable, and future-proof service. While LEO and fixed wireless have their place, only fiber meets the long-term goals of closing the digital divide.
